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Chernobyl radioactive weapons

1945 Hiroshima

The August 6, 1945 the second atomic bomb was built on the face of our planet: Litlle Boy (little boy), exploded 580 meters above the city of Hiroshima with a power equivalent to 12,500 tons of TNT. In a split second thousands of people became charred pieces of meat, while their internal organs boiled, while thousands more were covered in blood and skin of his arms dangling from his fingertips. Than 325,000 people who were in Hiroshima at that time, 140,000 die before the end of 1945 and for 1950 totaled 200.000 dead.
was the prospect of Nazi Germany to threaten the world with atomic bombs which stimulated the development of the Manhattan Project responsible for the construction of the first atomic devices. Leo In October 1939 Slizard, Hungarian physicist, Franklin Roosevelt warned about the dangers of 'the bomb' in the hands of the Nazis, in a letter signed by, among others, Albert Einstein, in response to General Leslie Groves was appointed head of Manhattan Project. Groves appointed research director Robert Oppenheimer, who in turn recruited some of the world's leading scientists who met in Los Alamos, in the desert of New Mexico. Groves once referred to as "the largest collection of crackpots ever seen."
The task of the scientists was to design a complete pump in parallel to process uranium and plutonium production, ride wit so quickly that could be launched from an airplane: the pump must operate effectively at the right time. To investigate the behavior of uranium 235 and plutonium-239, its chemistry and metallurgy also developed a trigger for a trigger of neutrons, and investigated the thermodynamics of a nuclear explosion.

Finally the mechanism of the Little Boy was a subcritical mass of U-235 that shoots another subcritical mass. The impact would be a supercritical mass to generate a chain reaction accelerated and uncontrollable, ie explode.
In the spring of 1944 the U.S. government decided to explode the first atomic bomb in the range of Alamogordo, New Mexico, an arid, plain that facilitated the observations and the nearest town was 43 kilometers. Was initially thought to throw it directly to Germany, but the fear that persuaded them to fail to do so.
Shortly before making the decision to take the test, Groves was informed that the Germans could not build the atomic bomb, but he hid the Manhattan Project scientists.
After several delays the trial was set for July 4, 1945, but prior to make an explosion of 100 tons of explosives was found that the infrastructure was not adequately prepared to ensure the safety of observers.
On May 9, 1945 the Nazis surrendered and Soviet troops drove the Japanese troops in Manchuria, China, there was no need for the pump.
Finally, despite the capitulation of Nazi the test was made on 16 July 1945. The blast produced a flash as bright as 20 soles, which was seen in three neighboring states, the observers at a distance of 25 km., Felt a heat wave similar to what is seen next to a fireplace. A fireball of 1.5 km., In diameter was projected into the sky, in a few seconds the first mushroom cloud of the story reached a height of 12.000 meters. At that time Openheimer (later confessed) recalled the verses "I am become death, destroyer of worlds."
Three weeks after the first atomic bomb of 4,500 kg., Weight, power and 20,000 tons were dropped on Hiroshima and three days later, the Fat Man was dropped on Nagasaki with equal power, reaping the lives of 140,000 people.
U.S. media presents us with the decision to carry out the bombing was made to save the lives of American soldiers, justifying save the lives of their soldiers in exchange for Japanese civilian life, a moral military honor not think that justifies, but Americans have repeatedly used throughout this century.
Little Boy With the Cold War begins happily ends with the destruction of a wall, without loss of life and to cry anymore ...

NUCLEAR
There are currently deployed around the world more than 30,000 nuclear weapons and although the imminence of a "nuclear war has diminished considerably since the end of the" guerrra cold "and the" dismantling "of the communist world, the chances of accidents nuclear persist. Also new threats have emerged, including the creation of nuclear weapons by terrorist groups and the possibility of conflicts among countries not aligned with the nuclear disarmament treaty. It seems that the health consequences of using nuclear weapons is no longer a concern, but the organization of the conference in New York to review the nuclear non-proliferation treaty is the last attempt to organize a world free of nuclear threat.
military objectives are to be achieved with nuclear weapons stocks are near their jobs as undoubtedly impact on civil society and has been on the experience of civilians which has become largely information on the effects of nuclear energy in health. These effects depend on the power of the weapon, the height reached by the explosion, the distance to the "zero point" and thus, the lethal area of \u200b\u200ba weapon is defined as: "the area within which equals the number of survivors that of those killed by explosion outside it. " Today it assume that a single nuclear explosion in a medium sized city health aid exceed the capacity of the city in a developed country, and that an attack with multiple weapons would far exceed the effort of the whole country.
Apart from the risk of "military origin" has been proven that the collapse of the USSR has created an illicit trade in radioactive material, especially plutonium consequences on people (or countries) involved are still difficult to assess. At the same time, there is a risk to health personnel working in the development of nuclear weapons and people living near nuclear research centers. Are well known and the consequences health disasters like the Chernobyl nuclear or Mayak in the USSR. The incidence of leukemia, thyroid cancers and genetic abnormalities in offspring of direct victims of such disasters. It is known that the toxicity of plutonium, the basic component of modern nuclear weapons due to its radiological effects, and thus ingestion, inhalation "irradiated" lung and gastrointestinal mucosa causing irreversible damage.

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The accident

In August 1986, in a report submitted to the International Atomic Energy Agency , explaining the causes of the accident at the Chernobyl plant. This revealed that the team that operated in central Saturday April 26 of 1986 proposed test with the intention to increase reactor safety. To this should continue to find out how long the turbine power generating steam once cut the flow of steam. The emergency cooling pumps, in case of failure, requiring a minimum of power to start (until torn diesel generators) and plant technicians did not know whether, once cut the flow of steam turbine inertia could keep the pumps running.
To perform this experiment, the technicians did not want to stop the chain reaction in the reactor to avoid a phenomenon known as xenon poisoning . Among the products of fission that occur within the reactor, is the Xenon (Xe), a gas very absorbent neutrons. While the reactor is operating normally, there are so many neutrons that the absorption is minimal, but when the power is too low or the reactor is stopped, the amount of 135Xe increases and prevents the chain reaction for a few days. When the 135Xe decay is when the reactor can be restarted.
operators control rods inserted to reduce the reactor power and this dropped to 30 MW . With such a low level, automatic systems would stop the reactor and therefore the operators disconnected the system power regulation, system emergency core cooling and other systems of protection. These actions, as well as the line drawn from the central computer that prevented the prohibited operations, were serious and multiple violations of the Nuclear Security Regulations of the Soviet Union. 30 MW
begins with xenon poisoning and to avoid increasing the reactor power up the control rods, but with the reactor about to go out, operators manually removed too many control rods. Of the 170 bars boron steel having the core safety rules have always required that a minimum of 30 bars decreases and this time let alone 8. With emergency systems disconnected, the reactor underwent an extremely rapid rise in power that operators do not detect in time. At 1:23, four hours after starting the experiment, some in the control room began to realize something was wrong.
wanted to come down again when the control rods by pressing the SCRAM emergency (AZ-5 button "Rapid Emergency Defense 5"), these did not respond because they were already possibly deformed by heat and disconnected to allow them to fall by gravity . We heard loud noises and then there was an explosion caused by the formation of a cloud of hydrogen within the nucleus, that blew the roof of 100 t reactor causing a fire in the and a giant plant emissions of fission products into the atmosphere.

immediate reactions:

Minutes after the accident, all firefighters assigned to the central military were already underway and preparations to control the disaster. The flames affecting several floors of the reactor 4 and came dangerously close to the building where the reactor 3. The heroics of firefighters during the first three hours of the accident prevented the fire spreading to the rest of the plant. Still, sought help from firefighters in Kiev because of the magnitude of the disaster. The plant operators put the other three reactors in emergency cooling. Two days later, there were 18 serious injuries and 156 wounded with serious injuries caused by radiation . There was still no death toll figure, but a nuclear accident increases every day the list of victims, even after many years later. The first approach
helicopter showed the magnitude of what happened. At the core, exposed to the atmosphere, the graphite the same burning red hot, while the fuel material and other metals had become an incandescent liquid mass. The temperature reached 2,500 ° C and a chimney effect, radioactive smoke drove to a considerable height.
At the same time, the leaders of the region began to prepare for the evacuation of the city of Pripyat and a radius of 10 km around the plant. This first evacuation began the day after a massive and it was concluded 36 h later. The evacuation of Chernobyl and a radius of 36 km was not carried out until six days after the accident. By then I had more than 1,000 affected by acute injury caused by radiation.

concrete structure called "sarcophagus" designed to contain radioactive material from the reactor core and was designed to last 30 years.
Saturday morning, several army helicopters were preparing to throw on the core mix material consisting of sand , clay, lead , dolomite and boron absorbing neutrons . Boron neutron absorbing prevent there being a chain reaction. The lead was intended to contain gamma radiation and other materials remained united and homogeneous mixture. When May 13 ended emissions had been thrown into a core 5,000 tons of materials.
then began building a tunnel under the reactor accident with the initial objective of implementing a cooling system to cool the reactor. This tunnel, as well as much of the cleanup of highly radioactive material, was developed by the Russian army reservists, young people between 20 and 30. Finally, never implemented the cooling system and the tunnel was filled with concrete to strengthen the ground and prevent the heart from sinking under the weight of material dumped. In a month and 4 days the tunnel was completed and began the uprising of a structure called a sarcophagus, which would involve isolating the reactor from outside. The construction lasted 206 days.

The effects of the disaster

The explosion caused the greatest catastrophe in the history of civil exploitation of nuclear energy. 31 people died at the time of the accident, about 135,000 people were evacuated immediately from the 155,000 km ² affected large areas remain uninhabited for many years to be subsequently relocating from other 215,000 people. Radiation spread to most of Europe, the levels of radioactivity remaining in areas close to dangerous levels for several days. The estimate of radionuclides were released into the atmosphere is about 3.5% of material from spent fuel (about 6 tons of fuel fragmented) and 100% of all noble gases in the reactor contents. Most representative of radioisotopes, the estimate of the spill is 85 peta becquerels of 137 Cs and between 50 and 60% of the total inventory of 131 I , ie between 1600 and 1920 petabecquerel. These two are the most important radioisotopes from the radiological point of view, although the spill included other on a smaller scale, such as 90 Sr or 239 Pu .

Fauna and flora:
After the disaster, an area of \u200b\u200b4 square miles of pine trees in the vicinity of the reactor acquired a golden brown and died, acquiring the name "Red Forest" . Some animals in the hardest hit areas also died or stopped reproducing. A herd of horses stranded in an island 6 km from the nuclear plant went out to disintegrate their thyroid glands.
In the years following the disaster in the exclusion zone abandoned by humans wildlife has flourished. Belarus has already declared a nature reserve , and in Ukraine there is a similar proposal. Several species of wild animals and birds that had not been seen in the area before the disaster, are now in abundance, due to the absence of humans in the area.
In a 1992-1993 study of game species in the area, in a kilo of beef and venison is measuring up to about 300,000 becquerels of cesium-137. This action was taken during a period of highly radioactive anomaly possibly caused by falling pine needles contaminated. The concentrations of radioactive elements have been declining since then to an average value of 30,000 Bq in 1997 and 7,400 in 2000, levels that remain dangerous. In Belarus, the maximum allowable limit radiocaesium in a kg of game meat is 500 Bq. In Ukraine is 200 Bq for any type of meat.

Controversy on the estimates of victims:

is expected that most premature deaths from the Chernobyl accident are the result of cancer and other diseases induced by radiation for several decades after the event. A large population (some studies consider the entire population of Europe) was subjected to relatively low radiation dose, increasing the risk of cancer in the population (according to linear no-threshold model ). It is impossible to attribute deaths specific accident, and many estimates indicate that the number of excess deaths will be too small to be statistically detectable (for example, if one out of every 5,000 people died due to accident, in a population of 400 million would be 80,000 deaths due to accident statistically undetectable). Moreover, interpretations of current health status of exposed populations are variable, so that estimates of casualties are always based on numerical models of the effects of radiation on health. On the other hand the effects of low level radiation on human health is still not well understood, so that no model is completely used reliable (even several authors claiming that the effect of hormesis , which is found in the action of other toxic elements, should also apply to radiation).
Given these factors, different studies on the effects of Chernobyl on health have yielded very different conclusions, and are subject to political and scientific controversy. Here are some of the major studios.

Immediate

Chernobyl contamination did not spread evenly throughout the adjacent regions, but is unevenly distributed depending on the weather. Reports from Soviet and Western scientists indicate that Belarus received about 60% of the contamination that fell on the former Soviet Union. The TORCH report 2006 states that half of the airborne particles were deposited outside Ukraine , Belarus and Russia . A large area of \u200b\u200bthe Russian Federation south of Bryansk was also contaminated, as well as parts of northwestern Ukraine.
In Western Europe taken various measures in this regard, including restrictions on imports of certain foods. The statements of senior officials from France in the sense that the Chernobyl accident had no significant impact on his country were ridiculed on the grounds that the radioactive cloud would have stopped at the borders German and Italian.
Two hundred people were hospitalized immediately, of whom 31 died (28 of them due to direct exposure to radiation). Most were firefighters and rescue personnel involved in the work to control the accident. An estimated 135,000 people were evacuated from the area, including 50,000 residents Pripyat (Ukraine). For more information on the number of people affected, see the following sections.
Soviet scientists reported that the reactor 4 containing between 180 and 190 tons of uranium dioxide and fission products. estimates released in the exhaust material ranging from 5% to 30%, but some receivers who were inside the sarcophagus and the reactor containment (eg Usatenko and dr. Karpan claim is not within more than 5 or 10% of the fuel. Due to the intense heat caused by fire, the radioactive isotopes released from nuclear fuel in the atmosphere rose by dispersing it.
The "liquidators " received large doses radiation. According to Soviet estimates, between 300,000 and 600,000 liquidators worked on cleaning up the evacuation zone of 30 km around reactor, but some of them entered the zone two years after the accident.

Effect on long-term health

Immediately after the accident, the greatest concern focused on the radioactive iodine a half-life eight days. Today (2008) concerns are focused on soil contamination strontium-90 and Cesium-137 , with half-lives of about 30 years. The highest levels of cesium-137 found in the surface layers of soil are absorbed by plants, insects and fungi, entering the food chain.
According to the report of the Nuclear Energy Agency of OECD Chernobyl were released the following proportions of the core inventory. 133Xe
100% 131 50-60% 20-40% 134Cs, 137Cs 20-40%, 25-60% 132Te, 4-6% 89Sr, 90Sr 4-6%, 4-6% 140Ba, 95Zr 3, 5%, 99 Mo> 3.5%, 103Ru> 3.5%, 106Ru> 3.5%, 3.5% 141Ce, 144Ce 3.5% 239Np 3.5%, 3.5% 238Pu, 239Pu 3.5%, 3.5% 240Pu, 241Pu 3.5%, 3.5% 242Cm
physical and chemical forms including exhaust gases, aerosols and finally , solid fuel fragmented. Pollution and its distribution within many of these parts scattered by the explosion of the core there is public reporting.
Some people in contaminated areas were exposed to large doses of radiation (up to 50 Gy ) in thyroid , due to absorption of iodine-131, which focuses on the gland. Radioactive iodine come from milk locally produced contaminated and would have been particularly in children. Several studies show that incidence of thyroid cancer in Belarus, Ukraine and Russia has risen greatly. However, some scientists believe that most of the detected increase is due to increase in controls. So far not detected a significant increase in leukemia in the general population. Some scientists fear that the radioactivity will affect local populations for generations.
Soviet authorities began evacuating people in the cer Canio in the Chernobyl nuclear power plant 36 hours after the accident. In May 1986, approximately one month after the accident, all the inhabitants who had lived within a radius of 30 km around the plant had been displaced. However, the radiation affected a much larger area than the area evacuated.

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The Chernobyl accident (in Russian Чернобыльская авария, "Chernóbylskaya aváriya, in Ukrainian language Чорнобильська катастрофа," Chornobilska katastrofa "), which occurred in that city Ukraine the April 26 of 1986 has been the nuclear accident worst in history, being the only one who has attained the rank of level 7 (highest) scale INES .
that day, during a test that simulated a power outage, a power surge in reactor 4 of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant , caused the overheating of the core reactor nuclear , leading eventually to the explosion of hydrogen accumulated inside.
The amount of radioactive material released, estimated was about 500 times greater than that released by the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima in 1945, directly caused the deaths of 31 people, forced the government of the Soviet Union the evacuation of about 135,000 people and caused international alarm by detecting radioactivity in various countries of northern and central Europe.
addition to the consequences onoma ec, long-term effects of the accident on public health have received attention in several studies. Although their findings are controversial, they agree that thousands of people affected by pollution have suffered or will suffer at some point in their lives impact on their health.
After protracted negotiations with the Ukrainian government, the international community funded the costs of decommissioning the plant, completed in December 2000 . Since 2004 is done building a new sarcophagus for reactor.

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Chernobyl nuclear treatment Negatives:

society has always feared everything related to energy, waste treatment plants or nuclear. The threat of a nuclear accident, radioactive waste production or proliferation of nuclear weapons are examples of the phobia existing. Previous entries
we were talking about the Energy Revolution approaching and the importance of this movement we wanted to go by linking different technologies, sources and resources that would allow for independent Hydrocarbons as a driver of our economy and development.
nuclear waste are produced in each stage of the nuclear fuel cycle from uranium mining to reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel. Most nuclear waste remains dangerous for thousands of years, leaving a dangerous legacy for future generations.
The extraction of plutonium by reprocessing results in a huge volume of highly radioactive liquid waste. Some of this waste produced during the reprocessing material is mixed with hot glass and solidified, resulting in glass rods that are also classified as HLW. The vitrification process makes it easy to transport and storage of waste Basic stages all nuclear processing:
1. Extraction of Uranium. The uranium used in nuclear power plants is usually mined in countries like Canada, Australia, Russia and Nigeria. In this first stage, the risk is due to breathing radioactive gases can lead to lung cancer. This last effect added to water and land pollution.
2. Uranium enrichment. Uranium naturally obtained is not suitable for nuclear fission, so to put it to use in a nuclear reactor needs to be enriched, the process generating massive amounts of radioactive particles. These remains are often used in weapons.
3. The enriched material is converted into uranium dioxide and compressed for "fuel rods" (Search).
4. Within the plant, uranium is divided to heat the water in a reactor and thus obtain electricity.
5. The process results in a particle chemical development uranium and plutonium. It is estimated that there is a stock of 230,000 kg of plutonium and only 5 kg is needed to build a nuclear bomb. Some highly dangerous radioactive isotopes such as cesium, strontium, iodine, krypton and plutonium are generated during normal operation of a nuclear reactor. Plutonium is particularly dangerous as it can be used in nuclear weapons if it is separated from spent nuclear fuel through a chemical treatment called "reprocessing."
6. The big problem is how to eliminate all that basurilla generated.
Everything seems to indicate that there is a clean but very productive. The day they find a way to remove these radioactive wastes is energy to consider as a true substitute for or as a simple additional alternative. Recent accidents
of importance have been Windscale (1957), Three Mile Island (1979), Chernobyl (1986) and Tokalmura (1999).

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Radioactive waste Radioactive elements

Another great problems facing humanity with the issue of the use of radioactivity for different purposes is the subject of nuclear waste industry considers waste radiactivos.La any radioactive material that contains radionuclides at concentrations higher than those established by the competent authorities and which is not intended for any use. Waste radioactive can be classified in many different ways depending on their characteristics, such as physical condition (ie whether they are gases, liquids or solids), the type of radiation they emit (alpha, beta or gamma), the period of half-life (life short, medium or long), and specific activity (baja. medium, high). It is normal to see them waste classified as low, medium and high activity, although in some countries manage each separately, in countries like Spain are just two categories: those with low and intermediate level on one side and high for another.

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Some chemicals are composed of chemical elements whose nuclei are unstable, due to the instability of these substances atoms emit subatomic particles intermittently and randomly. Overall
are radioactive substances that have an excess of protons or neutron . When the number of neutrons is not equal to the number of protons is more difficult than the strong nuclear force due to the effect of exchange pions can keep them together. Eventually, the imbalance is corrected by release of excess neutrons or protons, in the form of α particles that are truly core helium , beta particles can be electrons or positrons . These emissions lead to two types of radioactivity:
α radiation, which relieves the atomic nuclei in 4 mass units, and changes the atomic number by two units.
ß radiation, which does not change the mass of the nucleus, as it involves the conversion of a proton into a neutron or vice versa, and changes the atomic number in a single unit (positive or negative, depending on the emitted particle is an electron or a positron).
There is also a third type of radiation they emit photons simply high frequency, called γ radiation. In this type of establishment, what happens is that the nucleus moves from a higher energy excited state to a lower energy, which can still be unstable and lead to more radiation emission of type α, β and γ. Γ radiation is a type of electromagnetic radiation very penetrating because photons have no electrical charge.

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What is radiation?

The phenomenon of radiation is spread energy in the form of electromagnetic waves or subatomic particles through a vacuum or a material medium.
radiation propagated in the form of electromagnetic waves (X-rays, UV rays, etc.). called electromagnetic radiation , while corpuscular radiation is radiation transmitted in the form of subatomic particles (α particles, neutrons, etc..) moving at high speed in a medium or a vacuum, with significant energy transport.
If the radiation carries enough energy to cause ionization in it crosses, is said to be a ionizing radiation . If we talk about non-ionizing radiation. The character ionizing or non-ionizing radiation is independent of corpuscular or wave nature.
rays are ionizing radiation X-ray γ, and α particles, among others. Moreover, as UV radiation and radio waves, TV or mobile telephony are examples of non-ionizing radiation.

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Convergent and divergent evolution

Convergent evolution

convergent evolution, independent evolution of the same nature or similar characters in two or more species belonging to independent evolutionary lines (by nature is not understood in this If the personality, but any physical or behavioral attribute of an organism). These lines are based on independent evolutionary ancestral forms studied different character that gradually converge in a unique way.

Almost all examples of convergence can be interpreted in terms of adaptation to similar conditions is the environment of the organisms or their way of life, as with the adjustments to the movement. The physical demands of flight drastically limit the possible forms of the body to maintain it. The ability to fly has evolved independently in bats, birds and insects, as well as in groups now extinct and known for their fossils, like reptiles called pterosaurs. All these animals have evolved by convergent evolution wings. Also, all animals must be moved in the water face similar physical constraints imposed by the environment, and both aquatic mammals such as dolphins, and fish have developed bodies with the same and effective way hydrodynamics.

Convergent evolution is also seen in adaptations to food. Several different groups of mammals have independently evolved to feed on ants, anteaters from South America, the aardvark aardvark or Eastern and Southern Africa, the pangolin of Africa and Asia and the marsupial anteater and echidna of Australia. All of them have developed through convergent evolution powerful claws to open ant and termite mounds and a head provided with an elongated tubular snout with a long tongue to catch insects in their nests. Convergence is also observed in the physiology and anatomy digestion. As you know, cows ruminating digest plant material (see Ruminants); the fermentation capacity of the plant material in the stomach also been acquired by convergence a group of monkeys called colobinos that feed on leaves. Convergence comes to details of enzymes used in digestion. The ruminants colobinos and secreted into the stomach (unlike mammals) on the enzyme lysozyme, digests the bacteria responsible for fermentation of plant products. The amino acid sequence of the lysozymes of ruminants colobinos and unique similarities are examples of convergent evolution at the molecular level, this convergence reflects molecular probably the common role played by the enzyme in both groups of mammals. Characters

Homologues and Analogues

When two species share a character, like the eyes in humans and chimpanzees, or the wings of birds and bats, can be for one of two reasons: either the character was present in the common ancestor of both species and share it simply because they have inherited (in this case we speak of character homology, the eyes of man and chimpanzee are homologous), or the non- was in the common ancestor, but acquired by convergent evolution (in this case it is similar character.)

is important to distinguish between homologous and analogous characters in reconstructing the phylogeny or evolutionary diversification of organisms (see cladistics). It is assumed that two species have a close family if they seem much, but this hypothesis is valid only if the answers like homology, analogy or not convergence. Sometimes convergence can be detected by examining the characters in detail. The wings of birds, bats and insects are superficially similar, but their internal structures are very different: in insects, the wings are supporting structures called nerves, while in birds and bats wing structure is bone, in addition, the wings are covered by different bones of birds and bats, in fact, the bones of the wings of birds correspond by homology to the second finger of other vertebrates, in the case of the bat, correspond to fingers two to five.

Parallel Evolution

sometimes convergent evolution can be distinguished from the parallel. In both cases, the same character evolves independently along two lines. In the evolution parallel, the ancestral state of the two species was the same, in the convergent was different (see illustration). The parallel development, the two species can evolve independently to reach a new common state. Rarely can differentiate the parallel evolution of convergent real cases, because the dispute is about ancestral states of characters, which are usually unknown. However, the South American butterfly mimicry of passion flower is probably a result of parallel evolution, there are two species of butterflies that exhibit the same arrangement of colors, both of which are poisonous to birds and share the color of so that one looks to the other. The arrangement of the colors varies by region, but in each, the two species look alike. The advantage of mimicry requires the two species at each site followed a parallel evolution. Divergent Evolution

adaptive radiation and divergent evolution is a process that describes the rapid speciation of one or more species to fill many ecological niches. This is a process of evolution whose tools are mutation and natural selection.
Adaptive radiation often occurs when a species is introduced into a new ecosystem, or when there are species that survive in an environment that was previously unattainable. For example, Darwin's finches of the Galapagos Islands evolved from a single species of finch that arrived on the island. Other examples include the introduction by humans of mammalian predators in Australia, the development of the first birds that suddenly had the ability to expand its territory by air, or the development of lungfish in the Devonian, about 300 million years.

The dynamics of adaptive radiation is such that within a short period of time, many species are derived from one or more ancestral species. In this great number of genetic combinations, only a few can survive over time. Following the rapid development of many new species, many or most of them disappear as quickly as they appeared. The surviving species are almost completely adapted to the new environment. The rise and fall of the new species is currently progressing very slowly, compared with the initial outbreak species.

There are three basic types of adaptive radiation. These are:
1. General adaptation . A species that develops a radically new skill can reach new parts of their environment. The flight of birds is one of those general adaptations.
2. environmental change. A species that can, unlike others, survive in a radically changed environment will probably branch into new species to fill the ecological niches created by environmental change. An example of adaptive radiation as a result of environmental change was the rapid expansion and development of mammals after the extinction of the dinosaurs.
3. Archipelagos. isolated ecosystems such as islands and mountainous areas can be colonized by new species which are to establish a rapid process of divergent evolution. Darwin's finches are examples of radiation adaptive happened in an archipelago.

sometimes In science fiction scenarios have created human adaptive radiation leading to a range of species that evolve from the man.

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